Modernization
is a process of change from traditional and quasi-traditional order to certain
desired types of technology. This can take place in values, social structure
and achievements of the individual. This process is a holistic one, it affects the
thinking process, the beliefs, value of the people as a whole.
Education and Modernization in India:
To the
common man industrialization and automation symbolise modernisation. In machine
he sees, on the one hand, increased production resulting in better comfort and
higher standard of living and, on the other hand, science displacing
superstition.
In
education also, modernisation implies many things. To one educationist
modernisation means to spread education, to produce educated and skilled
citizens and train an adequate and competent intelligentsia. To another it
implies more teaching aids to make teaching-learning effective. A comprehensive
view of modernisation in education will mean a new approach not only to the
aims and processes of education but also to the totality of its entire
programmers to relate it to national development, national needs and national
aspirations.
Contemporary
education, which is an agent of modernization in various forms, is also of the
Western origin. Traditionally, content of education was esoteric and
metaphysical; its communication was limited to the upper classes or the
‘twice-born’ castes and the structure of its professional organization was
hereditary and closed.
The roles
both teachers and the taught were qualitative-astrictive. Modern education has
a fundamentally different orientation and organization. Its content is liberal
and exoteric, and it is steeped in modern scientific world-view. Freedom,
equality, humanism and denial of faith in dogmas are the themes which a modern
education should contain. It has a
professional structure which is not ascribed to any specific group or class but
can be achieved by merit by any one in society. Some branches of modern
education such as science, engineering and medicine directly focus on a
world-view which embodies the core values of modernization, and imparts skill
to realize the goal of a modern society. Traditional Indian education departed
fundamentally from these normative and organizational prerequisites.
The
foundation of modern education in India was established by the British. Its historical
landmarks are: Macaulay’s policy of 1835 to promote European learning through
English, Sir Charles wood’s dispatch of 1854 which for the first time
recognized the need for mass education with the private and missionary help and
gave up the policy of selective education known as the ‘filtration theory’, and
finally the first Indian Education Commission of 1882 which recommended the
initiative of private Indian agencies in the expansion of education.
Gradually,
a broad structure of educational organization emerged in India which may be
roughly classified into three groups: first, primary- vernacular education (except
for the English missionary schools); secondly, high school and secondary school
education and, thirdly, college and university education.
From the
very beginning a contradiction between the primary and the college-university
level of education emerged in India because of the medium and content of
education. At the primary level the medium of instruction (except for
missionary and public schools) was the regional language and at the college
level it was English.
Teaching
of science and European literature was done at the colleges and universities to
which select few had access; but the mass education at the primary level
remained isolated from this main current. This lag in the structure of
education which started from the time of Macaulay has still not been fully
bridged. Modernization through education thus right from the beginning in India
has been confined to a sub-culture of college and university educated youth and
elite and never did become a mass phenomenon.
In the
expansion of education, too, in early days there was more emphasis on the
higher education than primary education. In the nineteenth century the rush was
for higher education, specially, among the urban middle classes and the growth
in higher education was also considerable.
Primary
education was neglected till education became a provincial subject. For instance,
“the number of scholars in all kinds of colleges in 1921 was 59,595. It rose to
144,904 in 1939, nearly 2.4 times as much. The number of pupils in schools of
all kinds during the same period increased from 8.32 to 14.55 million, only 1.7
times as much. The
difference in the pace of college and school education was accentuated in the
decade following 1939. In 1949- 50, for example, the number of all kinds of
college students rose to 380,837, is, 2.7 times as much in ten years. The
corresponding figure for pupils in all kinds of schools rose from 14-55 23.66
million, an increase of only 1.6 times as much. Higher education was thus
becoming increasingly top heavy, especially after British influence”. The
school population now stands at about 50,000,000 and the literacy rate is
nearing 25 per cent. This aspect of the expansion in education has contributed
to many important sociological problems in cultural change in India.
The
significance of education in modernization could be analysed in three areas:
first, the cultural content of this education, secondly, its organizational
structure and thirdly, the rate of its growth. The content of new education was
doubtlessly modernizing and liberal in nature.
This is
true whether reference is made to the humanities or social science or natural
and applied sciences. The literary content of the courses in the humanities
and social sciences was drawn from the literature of the European Renaissance,
Reformation and Enlightenment. Its themes were humanistic, secular and
liberal. An
important element in this education was emphasis on contemporaneity and
humanistic evaluation of social, political and historical issues. Its
sociological result was disenchantment from traditional education, whose
categories being embedded in the scriptural and mythological lore’s had an
obsessive degree of orientation towards the past. The
categorical structure of the new education was oriented to the present and the
future. Disciplines like history, geography, political science and economics,
etc., in the curricula had a subtle orientation to focus the attention of
students on social and physical realities and on the world- view of
contemporaneity and anthropocentrism. This it marked a major break from the traditional
outlook and system of values.
In
cultural modernization through education often more positive value is
associated with learning of physical and biological sciences, medicine and
engineering rather than the humanities and social sciences. The reason for this
association is not only that science education has more modernizing effect than
arts, but because this education creates manpower which is indispensable for
economic and industrial growth.Nevertheless,
if the creation of a substantial profession in science and engineering
contributes to modernization of society, education in the humanities and social
sciences contributes to the modernization of man. Every individual is unique
with respect to his or her tendencies and potentialities so, one must not be
considered less significant than the other.
The idols
of the Victorian generation, which in India lived longer than they did in the
West, continue to hold high places mainly because they continue to be ‘set
books’ in secondary schools, and colleges. Apart from the emphasis on the works
of Western thinkers and litterateurs a current of cultural introspection and
new look on traditional literature was simultaneously going on in India. Its
symbols were drawn from the pragmatism of the Vedas, the logical metaphysics of
the Upanishads and the karma yoga or the philosophy of positive action as
contained in the Gita.
Leaders
like Vivekananda, Tilak, Gokhale, Gandhi, and Aurobindo established the
foundation of this tradition. A militant nationalist culture flourished in
Bengal, Punjab, Maharashtra and some other parts of India. This cultural
process served to counterbalance the effect of Western education and its
literary and cognitive content. The new
education was also different in its organizational structure. It was impacted
by teachers who were appointed based on educational achievement irrespective of
their caste or birth, a principle which was in basic contrast with the concept
of Guru (teacher) in the Hindu tradition who had to be a Brahmin by caste.
Not only
the content of education but also the structure of the teaching profession was
thus secularized. Training schemes for teachers in the primary, middle and high
and higher-secondary schools were launched. In Bengal, first Normal School for
teachers was established in 1844 and the district primary and middle school
education was placed under the charge of Inspector of Schools.
The
Education Code of 1904 for the first time made the appointment of a certain
minimum number of trained teachers a necessary condition for the recognition of
schools. During 1919-20 the total number of vernacular teachers in India was
only 201,000, of which 70,000 were trained. The teachers in Anglo- vernacular
schools during the same period were 100,000 of whom 35,000 were trained and
11,000 possessed a degree. Since
then there has been a tremendous expansion in primary, middle and high school
education. The total number of teachers in lower primary schools during 1950-51
was 537,918 of whom 82,281 were women. During the same year the number of
teachers in higher primary schools was 85,494, about 12,887 of these being
women.
The
estimated number of lower primary school teachers by 1965-66 is about 1,
050,000; out of this 200,000 would be women. For the same year the number of
higher primary school teachers is estimated to be 520,000, about 140,000 being
women. Although the rate of growth in the number of teachers has been low,
through this profession an organized pattern for cultural diffusion in the
country has emerged which contributes to the Great tradition of modernization
in India.
The
expansion of primary and secondary levels of education has been followed by
growth in higher education. To the three universities, Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras which were established in 1857, fifteen more were added till the end of
the British rule in India. After Independence, however, the number of
universities has more than doubled. Between 1947-66, forty- six new universities
have been established and nine Institutes have been deemed to be universities.”
About
2,565 colleges are being controlled by the sixty-four universities which are
functioning in India, with a total enrolment of 15, 28,227 students. Comparing
it with the figures in 1911, when there were only 186 colleges and about 13,551
students (in graduate and post-graduate courses), the progress is phenomenal. Percentage
increase in the output of post-graduate students in basic sciences has been of
120.6 per cent during 1950-51, of 83.6 per cent during 1955-60, and of 48.2 per
cent during 1961-63. The number of engineering students, which during 1889-94 totalled
only 1,104 (an average of about 221 students per annum) was recorded in 1964-65
alone to be 78,114. However,
it may be added that as compared to the total number of students pursuing
higher education, this number constitutes only 5.4 percent, which is small.
However, the balance of enrolment between science and humanities (arts) has
been considerably made even if we compare the 42.0 per cent of total enrolment
of students for arts courses with 31.3 percent enrolled for science degrees and
additional 12.4 percent enrolled for degrees in engineering, medicine,
agriculture and veterinary science.
The above graph shows us the progressive increase in the literacy rates of our country India.
Progress
has also been made in other spheres of educational planning and modernization
of its organization. Percentage of girls going to schools and colleges has
increased. In many States schooling of children has been made free and
compulsory. New vocational and poly-technical institutions have been started
for better utilization of educated manpower for the economic and social growth
of the country. The
working conditions and salaries of teachers at all levels have, been improved
to a considerable extent, although some imbalances remain. But all this growth
appears phenomenal only in temporal sense. In magnitude the growth rate of
education does not seem to be very impressive or phenomenal.
Also, the
expansion of education has not led to a sociologically meaningful degree of
social mobility and change in stratification system. Higher education is still
primarily confined to the upper classes, is a scarce good and reflects the
advantages of wealth and social origin More than seventy- five per cent of
people is still illiterate. The proportion of national income devoted to education
in India is small in comparison with educationally advanced countries of the
world.
Despite
these limitations, education has been one of the most influential instruments
of modernization in India. It has led to the mobilization of people’s
aspirations for nationalism, liberalism and freedom. It alone has been
responsible for the growth of an enlightened intelligentsia which carried forward
not only a movement for Independence but also a relentless struggle for social
and cultural reforms. It has created a sub-culture of students in India which
though not fully modern, contains elements of transition from tradition to
modernity. The
persistent strains that we find in the internal system of this sub-culture
partly reflects the stresses of transition from one constellation of values to
another and partly results from the structural maladjustment of this culture
with that of the larger society. Yet, its modernizing significance is
self-evident.
Finally,
the educational system has contributed to modernization by growth of new forms
of rationally organized structures in the shape of school, colleges and
universities, which serve as cultural networks for the diffusion of knowledge
and cultural categories which are modem in ethos. However,
some elements of conflict between tradition and modernity can persistently be
discerned in the functioning and administration of the educational system in
India at all levels. Whereas modernization has in some forms been welcomed
there has also been a conscious effort to preserve the traditional values. This has
a very logical explanation. Modernization in all traditional cultures goes
along with the process of a new identity consciousness. Since the former is
outer-directed process, the latter must necessarily be inner- directed. Hence
identity consciousness finds its basic symbolic structure in the past
tradition. Nationalism,
as a modernizing process in such societies emerges as a queer blend of modern
psychology of outer-directedness and the core commitment to tradition as
revealed by inner-directed search for national symbols.
In the field of education, a good example is
the following statement in the Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66,
appointed by the Government of India:
"The most
powerful tool in the process of modernization is education based on science and
technology. The one great lesson of the present age of science is that with
determination and willingness to put in hard work prosperity is within the
reach of any nation which has a stable and progressive government. There is
no doubt that in the years to come India’s trade and commerce will grow; there
will be more food for all; more education, better health and a reasonable
standard of living will be available. But India’s contribution can, and should
be far more than these material gains. She should learn to harness science, but
she must also learn not to be dominated by science."
Role of Education in the Modernisation of India:
Education and Increased Production.
Education and Equalisation of Educational
Opportunity.
Education and Promotion of Emotional and National
Integration.
Education and Establishment of a Socialistic
Pattern of Society.
Education for Democratic Values.
Education and Secularism.
Education for International Understanding.
Education and Synthesis between Scientific and
Cultural Values.
The
following are the recommendations regarding the impact of modernization on
programs of educational reconstruction suggested by the Education Commission (1964-66).
EXPLOSION
OF KNOWLEDGE: During the last few years, there has been an explosion of
knowledge. In the traditional society, the quantum of knowledge was limited,
and the main aim of education was preservation, maintenance and promotion of
the existing culture. But in the present society the quantum of knowledge
is very vast. Knowledge earlier was received passively but now it is discovered
actively. The traditional society believed in 'to know' but now the society
believes in 'to know by heart', this leads to creative and critical thinking.
The Education Commission also emphasis by observing the present condition to
have better methods of teaching in the new concept of education and to have
well training of teachers at the school and colleges level without much of
boredom.
RAPID
SOCIAL CHANGE: In our last blog we discussed regarding this aspect. We can
conclude that due to the rapid social changes the education centres should be a
step ahead in the teaching methods. There is need of a dynamic policy in the
field of education. The Education Commission also believes that unlike the
traditional methods of teaching, the teaching should bring awakening of mind,
curiosity, development of interests, attitudes, values and building up
essential skills. For example: to differentiate between good/bad and critical
thinking and better judgement.
NEED FOR
RAPID ADVANCE: Once the process of modernization has started we cannot step it
in the half way to go back to the traditional society. Hence, there is need for
a rapid advance to take this modernization to peaks. It is obvious to get
problems, issues, like economical, cultural and political. But we need to
overcome and move rapidly forward.
MODERNIZATION
AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS: With regards to modernization and education progress
the Education Commission too feels that the progress in modernization is
proportional to the education. Modernization is a process of bringing change.
Modernization does not necessarily mean a complete change in or isolation of
own tradition.
For
modernization attempts should be made on foundation of the past, reflecting the
needs of the present and vision for the future. Modernization of the Indian
society should be based on morals and spiritual values and
self-discipline. Education Commission also believes that modernization
will lead towards offering individual a larger way of life and wider variety of
choices. Freedom of choice has some advantage no doubt, but it is also
dependent on the value system and motivation. Knowledge and power of
individuals gets expanded and individuals develop a deep sense of social
responsibility and power of appreciation of moral values and spiritual values.
Modernization should not be madly followed at the cost of human values.
Therefore, attempts should be made in to inculcate value oriented education at
all the stages of education. Children should learn to maintain a balance
between spiritual and material values of life while modernizing them.
To modernize the Indian society, we have few problems that include:
Socio-political problems.
Modernization brings changes in the social structure, values and social norms.
Problems of National Integration.
Problems of Science and technological development etc.
