PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING :: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

Dissimilarity is principle of nature. No two persons are alike. All the individuals differ from each other in many respects. Children born of the same parents and even the-twins are not alike. This differential psychology is linked with the study of individual differences. 

Individuals differ in mental abilities as well as in physique and traits of personality. Everywhere people are influenced by the number of genetic factors and environmental influences. 

This change is seen in physical forms like in height, weight, colour and complexion strength etc., difference in intelligence, achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude, learning habits, motor abilities and skill. Each man has an intellectual capacity through which he gains experience and learning.

Every person has the emotions of love, anger, fear and feelings of pleasure and pain. Every man has the need of independence, success and need for acceptance.

Broadly individual difference may be classified into two categories such as inherited traits and acquired traits: 

Based on the types of Individual Differences we shall describe the factors and reasons:

Intra-Individual Differences-

Body form and abilities: People differ and in the very use of all the sensory, motor and physical ability.

Cognitive Abilities: Perceptual abilities, conceptual abilities, knowing many things, remembering, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, evaluating, analyzing, imagining can be factors for differences.

Affective Qualities: Ability to attend, receive, feel and experience emotions may be different in different individuals.

Psychomotor Differences: The responses and behaviour of individual differ depending on their attitudes towards the person or situation, interest, aptitude and so on.

Inter-Individual Differences-

These include the differences that arise due to the heredity and environment. They are classified as:

Physical or Physiological Differences:-

Physical Differences: Differences due to height, weight, colour of skin, colour of eyes and hair, size of hands, arms, feet, head, mouth, nose, length of waist line, hair style, structure and functioning of internal organs etc.

Motor Differences: Differences due to factors such as speed of reaction, reaction time, steadiness, rate of muscular movement, manual dexterity, resistance to fatigue etc.

Psychological Differences:-

Mental Differences: People differ in intelligence i.e. in creative abilities, intellectual capabilities like thinking, reasoning, imagining, evaluating, analyzing, judging and problem solving etc. Based on these factors individuals are distinguished as borderline, idiots, morons, superiors etc.

Emotional Difference: Individuals differ due to factors like few have more inclination towards love, joy, affection, amusement and few are inclined more towards fear, anger, distress, despair and jealousy.

Differences due to various interests: Individuals differ due to their interests in meeting people, attending social events or functions, group activities and fond of picnics etc.

Differences in Aptitudes: Differences due to aptitudes among individuals. Few have scholastic aptitude, musical aptitude, artistic aptitude or scientific aptitude and so on.

Differences in attitude and beliefs: We have varying attitudes towards people, group, things and ideologies. Few have conservative and rigid belief. Few are open, rational and flexible in nature.

Learning Differences: We differ in our learning differences, learning modes, speed of learning, in the quality and quantity of learning, use of learning in the daily life situations.

Differences in Achievement: We differ due to the achievement. Education is one major factor which brings individual differences. There is a wide gap in the behaviours of educated and uneducated persons. All traits of human beings like social, emotional and intellectual are controlled and modifies through proper education. This education brings a change in our attitude, behaviour, appreciations, Personality. It is seen that uneducated persons are guided by their instinct and emotions where as the educated persons are guided by their reasoning power.

Difference in social and moral orientation: Some of us are in participative nature while others are socially handicapped, social or antisocial, anti people, poorly developed personalities, socially blind etc.

Sex Differences: Men have more motor skills requiring muscular strength and persistence than women. Men have more scientific, mechanical, theoretical interests. Women have good language abilities. They are more social and emotional.

Difference in physical maturity: All do not attain physical maturity at the same age either physically or physiologically. Here growth is related to the stages of functioning of the various parts/ organs/ senses of our body.

Differences in Health status: General health of children affects their behaviour including their learning and doing academic work. Under nourishment or malnutrition have effects on the child.

Differences in Chronological Age: It is observed that children learn faster and better than adults. Age is another factor which is responsible in bringing individual differences. Learning ability and adjustment capacity naturally grow with age. When one grows in age can acquire better control over our emotions and better social responsibilities. When a child grows then this maturity and development goes side by side.

Due to the above factors Individual Difference exists.

Educational implications of Individual differences are listed below:

1. Aims of education, curriculum and method of teaching should be linked with individual differences considering the different abilities and traits individual.
2. Curriculum should be designed as per the interest, abilities and needs of different students.
3. The teacher has to adopt different types of methods of teaching considering individual difference related to interest, need, etc.
4. Some co-curricular activities such as Drama, music, literary activities (Essay & Debate Competition) should be assigned to children according to their interest.
5. Teacher uses certain specific teaching aids which will attract the children towards teaching considering their interest and need.
6. Various methods such as playing method, project method, Montessori method, storytelling methods are to be used considering/discovering how different children respond to a task or a problem.
7. The division of pupils into classes should not be based only on the mental age or chronological age of children but the physical, social and emotional maturity should be given due consideration.
8. In case of vocational guidance the counsellor is to plan the guidance technique keeping in view the needs and requirements of the students.

PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING :: FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

In our previous blog we have learnt about 'Growth' and 'Development'. Before we concentrate on the factors affecting growth and development. Let's take a quick look at the difference between growth and development.

Growth is indicative i.e. increase in body, size, weight etc.   It is quantitative progress.  It is a physical change. It is external in nature. It stops at certain stage and is a physical progress.

Development is not indicative. It qualitative progress.  It is psychological change.   It is internal in nature.   It is continuous process and is a cognitive progress.

Human growth and development is affected by a large number of factors. These factors include internal factors and external factors. Internal factors are conditions within the body.

The integrated nature of growth, maturation and development are largely maintained by a constant interaction of genes, hormones, nutrients and other factors. These factors also influence physical performance. Some are hereditary in origin. Others, such as season, dietary restriction, severe psychological stress, originate in the environment and simply affect the rate of growth at the time they are acting. Others again, such as socio-economic class, reflect a complicated mixture of hereditary and environmental influences and probably act throughout the whole period of growth. 

Human organism is the product of heredity and environment. Potentialities of development, and not acquired skills, knowledge and attitudes are handed down from parents to their off-springs. Again, favourable environmental influences and specific training are required to develop a superior personality or to improve a weak one.

To better understand the concept the nature-nurture both influence the growth and development of an individual. The final end product that we obtain is the product generated after the influence of the internal and external factors. Let's learn in detail about these factors.

Internal Factors Include:

1.Hereditary factors

2.Biological or Constitutional factors

3.Intelligence 

4.Emotional factors

5.Social factors.

Internal factors are the factors which are within the individual. 

Hereditary factors:  Hereditary factors play their part at the time of conception in the mother’s womb. A person’s height, weight and structure of the body, colour of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instinct are all decided by these hereditary influences. Hereditary factors play a very important role in the growth and development. The foetus hereditary is influenced by the generational characters transmitted by the parents to the child. The nerves system, physical structures and physiological functions all are demonstrated by the hereditary thus passed, if it is dominating in an individual, environmental influence is minimum.

Biological and Constitutional factors: A child’s constitutional make-up, somatic structure, physique and body chemistry influences his growth and development throughout his life. The growth and development of an individual is influenced by the body structure, physique and body chemistry of an individual. I the body structure, physique i.e. the individual has any organ deformities or say undeveloped or underdeveloped nervous system, the individual cannot function normally. It effects the cognitive and physical functioning. The chemistry of the body is also affected if the body of an individual has a malfunctioning in the secretions of the endocrine glands. 

Endocrine glands are commonly referred to as ductless glands, or glands of internal secretion. They secrete chemical substances, hormones directly into the bloodstream. Human growth is affected by biochemical products such as hormones. Hormones are regarded as growth promoting substance. Probably all the endocrine glands influence growth. Most of the hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands and play a significant role in regulating the pattern of growth and development as per instructions of the genes.  

 The most important hormone controlling growth from birth up to adolescence is growth hormone or somatotrophin. This is in fact a polypeptide secreted by the pituitary. It helps growth of bones and thereby increases the height of persons. Growth hormone controls the rate at which growth takes place up to the time of steroid - induced adolescent spurt.

Its administration causes the amino acids to be incorporated into tissues to form new protein. It also causes an overall growth rate of most of tissues including brain.

 Thyroid hormone plays a vital role throughout the whole of growth. The activity of the thyroid, judged by the basal metabolic rate, decreases gradually from birth to adolescence. In hypothyroidism growth is delayed, skeletal maturity; dental maturity and growth of the brain are all affected. During adolescence a new phase of growth occurs under the control of steroid hormones secreted by the adrenals and gonads. The gonads of both sexes secrete estrogens in small quantities from the time of birth onwards. At puberty the estrogens level rise, sharply in girls and to a much more limited extent in boys; the sex differences is possibly due to an inhibitory hormone secreted by the seminiferous tubules of the testicle. Testosterone, produced by the testicle, is important in stimulating growth and it is responsible for the greater growth of muscle. Gonadotrophins are responsible for the growth of the ovaries and testis, and later on the secretion of the amounts of estrogens and testosterone responsible for the growth and development of secondary sex characters.  

Intelligence:  Intelligence contributes to the growth and development of the individual. Intelligence is the ability to learn about, learn from, understand, adjust, interact with the environment and take right decision at right time. It affects the social behaviour, moral judgment and emotional growth.  Low grade intelligence is associated with retardation, slow learning and poor performance. On the other hand, high grade intelligence is associated with acceleration which includes social amicability, emotional stability, moral judgement, fast decision making, adjustment with the environment, quick learning and excellent performance.

Emotional factors:  Emotional factors include fear, anxiety, anger, jealousy etc. They have adverse effect towards physical, social, mental, emotional and language development. Emotional maturity plays a very important role in the growth and development of the child.

Social factors: Social factors affect a lot towards an individual's adaptability. It helps an individual to adjust to the society and his environment.

The expression of feelings about self, others, and things describe emotional development. Emotional and social development are often described and grouped together because they are closely interrelated growth patterns. 

The sex of an individual also affects growth and development. At birth, boys are slightly bigger in size than girls. When the process of growth sets in after birth, girls exhibit rapid growth and attain full size earlier than boys. 

External factors: External factors influence growth and development; they are outside or from external source as the environment.  Much of the physical growth depends partly upon such environmental factors as sunlight, fresh air, conditions of climate and partly' upon food and nutrition.

When we talk about the environment, it can be the environmental influence on the foetus and environmental influence after the birth of an individual.

Environmental influence on the foetus happens when the foetus is still in the mother's womb. It includes the effect of radiation, pollution, malnutrition, heavy work by the mother and lack of proper care and affection from others.

Environmental influences after birth include lack of proper care after the birth of a baby. After birth proper care is required to avoid complications. Accidents and incidents make the growth and development to lapse. If any damage occurs in brain, it renders proper growth. Love, affection, good physical environment, proper nourishment, medical care can bring harmony in growth and development.

There is a well-marked seasonal effect on velocity of growth visible in most human growth data. Growth in height is on average fastest in spring and growth in weight fastest in autumn. This is true at all ages, including adolescence. The mechanism of the seasonal effect is not known; probably variations in hormone secretion are involved. Climate seems to have a very minor effect on overall rate of growth in man. It has been suggested that each major race of mankind varies in stature according to the climates in which they live.  Seasonal variation in growth has also been observed in many studies. Longitudinal studies have shown that only about 30% of the children have cycles of increase and decrease in growth velocity which are strictly seasonal. The remaining children show accelerations and decelerations of growth which cannot be clearly related with seasons. 

Growth is closely related with nutrition. A sufficiency of food is essential for normal growth. An adequate supply of calories is naturally essential for the normal growth of humans and the need varies with the phase of development.  Nine different amino acids have been claimed to be essential for growth and absence of any one will result in disordered or stunted growth. Other factors are also essential for growth. For example, zinc plays a part in protein synthesis and is a constituent of certain enzymes; a deficiency of zinc causes stunting, interference with sexual development and falling out of hair.  Iodine is needed for the manufacture of the thyroid hormones. Bone will not grow properly without an adequate supply of calcium, phosphorus and other inorganic constituents such as magnesium and manganese. Iron is required for the production of haemoglobin. Vitamins play an important part in growth. Vitamin A is thought to be control the activities of osteoblasts. In vitamin C deficiency the intercellular substance of bone is inadequately formed. Vitamin D deficiency is the cause of rickets. Malnutrition during childhood delays growth, and malnutrition in the years proceeding adolescence delays the appearance of the adolescent spurt. Growth studies have demonstrated that malnutrition may cause serious impairment of growth. The term malnutrition generally refers to the effects of an inadequate intake of calories or other major dietary components such as proteins.  

Malnutrition may also result from diseases which decrease the appetite or interfere with digestion and assimilation. 

The physical growth of human beings is definitely affected by cultural factors. Culture differs from ethnic group to ethnic group. The body growth differences correlate with varied cultural groups.  The physical growth of the body follows some adaptations in different geographical areas of distribution of the groups. 

Socioeconomic influence on human growth is also a well known factor. Children from different socioeconomic levels differ in average body size at all ages that have been investigated. The upper groups being always more advanced along the course to maturity.   The cause of this socio - economic differential are probably multiple. Nutrition is almost certainly one, and with it all the habits of regular meals, sleep, exercise and general organization that distinguish, from the point of view, a good home from a bad one. Growth differences are more closely related to the home conditions than to the strictly economic status of the families and home conditions reflect the intelligence and personality of the parents. Size of family exerts an indirect influence on the rate of growth. In a large family with limited income the children do not get proper nutrition. As a result the growth is affected. The number of children in the family exerts an effect on the children’s rate of growth. Children in large families have been shown to be usually smaller and lighter than children in small families. Possibly this is because in large families children tend to get less individual care and attention.   

PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING :: KOHLBERG's THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT.

   "An Educator's Journey Through Moral Development"

Moral values help in improving behaviour, instilling respect and enhancing relationships with others. Moral values help humans to make the right choices and determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong.

Moral values guide a person's moral compass by giving them a sense of right and wrong. Much of an individuals' life is driven by moral values and the ability to make choices based on what they know to be right or wrong. This is one of the main aspects of the importance of values. Morals are often instilled in a person as a child, when he or she is taught what is and isn't acceptable behaviour. This can include learning to be respectful of others or how to act in certain situations.

Moral values offer a guide to lead a noble life rather than one that is self-serving and full of selfish motives and interactions. Parents generally begin teaching their children good moral values early on in life as many children learn how to interact with others by watching their elders. Moral values not only help people to lead good, noble lives, but also offer motivation and a sense of satisfaction in life. Many avenues to success require good moral values or are more easily navigated with good morals. High moral values may help people to feel as though they are leading meaningful lives, make their interactions with others more meaningful and enjoyable, and can lead to success in personal and professional lives.

Many experts believe that the lives of those who practice good morals can demonstrate the importance of moral values. Good relationships, strong marriages, professional success, motivation to do better, being a respectful and well-liked person can all be attributed to practicing moral values. Values can determine how people interact with others, how they react to bad situations, the kinds of jobs they have and how they are seen by those close to them.

The importance of moral values doesn't just lie in the positives of having good morals, but also in the negatives of lacking moral values. When someone lacks moral values his or her life may be filled with selfishness, bad habits and tumultuous relationships. In some cases, lacking morals or acting in opposition to good morals can also leave a person feeling guilty or unproductive. Those without a strong moral compass may end up in bad situations personally and professionally, lacking good manners or worse. Often, the motive for teaching or practicing moral values is to avoid these negative consequences that living without moral values can bring.

Today with this blog of mine, I am going to help you understand the importance of moral development and how does that happen in an individual, by throwing light on the work of eminent personalities in the field of psychology.

Let's first begin with moral development. Moral Development is the process through which children develop proper attitudes and behaviours toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws.

Moral development is a concern for every parent. Teaching a child to distinguish right from wrong and to behave accordingly is a goal of parenting. 
Moral development is a complex issue that—since the beginning of human civilization—has been a topic of discussion among some of the world's most distinguished psychologists, theologians, and culture theorists. It was not studied scientifically until the late 1950s. 

Piaget's theory of moral reasoning

The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget about whom we discussed in one of the past blogs explored how children developed moral reasoning. He rejected the idea that children learn and internalize the rules and morals of society by being given the rules and forced to adhere to them. Through his research on how children formed their judgments about moral behaviour, he recognized that children learn morality best by having to deal with others in groups. He reasoned that there was a process by which children conform to society's norms of what is right and wrong, and that the process was active rather than passive.

Piaget found two main differences in how children thought about moral behaviour. Very young children's thinking is based on how actions affected them or what the results of an action were. For example, young children will say that when trying to reach a forbidden cookie jar, breaking 10 cups is worse than breaking one. They also recognize the sanctity of rules. For example, they understand that they cannot make up new rules to a game; they have to play by what the rule book says or what is commonly known to be the rules. Piaget called this "moral realism with objective responsibility." It explains why young children are concerned with outcomes rather than intentions.

Older children look at motives behind actions rather than consequences of actions. They are also able to examine rules, determining whether they are fair or not, and apply these rules and their modifications to situations requiring negotiation, assuring that everyone affected by the rules is treated fairly. Piaget felt that the best moral learning came from these cooperative decision-making and problem-solving events. He also believed that children developed moral reasoning quickly and at an early age.

History of the Kohlberg’s Theory
The theory of moral development presents an exciting subject that stems from Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning. The theory has made people understand that morality commences from early childhood and has the ability to be affected by various factors. It can be developed either positively or negatively. This is dependent on how an individual executes a task presented to him or her on each stage of moral development. Kohlberg came up with the theory based on the ideas generated while he was researching children and adolescents. He found out that they tend to face different moral issues, and their judgment based on whether they will act negatively or positively is influenced by several factors. Various situations created by Kohlberg were not meant to prove whether his subjects were morally wrong or right. He wanted to find out why the children thought that it was morally right or wrong.

Precisely how do children attain morality? It is a question that has fascinated religious leaders, philosophers and parents for ages. It has also become a thorny issue in both education and psychology. Do societal or parental influences play a significant role towards moral development? Do all children develop in similar ways with regards to morality? These are among the questions that people tend to ask. Lawrence Kohlberg developed the theory to help answer such questions.

Kohlberg’s Theory

The theory asserts that moral reasoning encompasses six developmental stages. Each stage has more ability of responding to moral dilemmas than the identified predecessor. The stages involved are classified into three levels. The levels include conventional morality, pre-conventional morality and post-conventional morality. Kohlberg relied upon several dilemmas in order to see how people would justify their actions if they were presented in similar circumstances. He did not analyze the conclusion, but the moral reasoning displayed.

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

This level of reasoning is more prevalent to children; 9 years and below though not entirely. Here, they do not have a personal code of reasoning with regards to morality. Their morals are shaped by the standards set by the adults around them. On other occasions, they are determined by the consequences likely to accrue as a result of behaving in a certain way. Children at this level are yet to internalize and adopt the society’s convention about what is wrong or right. This makes them focus on the external consequences likely to accrue if they behave in a certain way. This level encompasses the first two stages of moral development.

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation

Here, the reasoning that children have is that they will only be punished if they do the wrong thing. This means that they will always strive to do the right thing at all times. No one likes being punished so acting in the right way is not an option here, but a must. The child will always recall that the last time they did so and so, they got punished. That will mean that the action was not morally right. As a result, the child involved will take utmost care not to repeat that action due to the expected consequences. Children do have to be punished directly to view the action as being morally wrong, but a punishment handed to their colleagues will also trigger them to refrain from the act in future. This case also applies to adults to a certain extent. They tend to follow the law so that they do not find themselves in jail.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

In this stage, people tend to judge morality based on how it helps satisfy their needs. As a result, different people tend to have different viewpoints. This stage tries to showcase a limited interest for other people’s interests. As a result, the concern for others is not rooted in intrinsic respect or loyalty. It is more of “you scratch my back, I scratch yours in return” kind of mentality. This is where children tend to ask “what is in it for me” if I act in a certain way? Children tend to believe that these actions are morally right due to severe need of the people that execute them.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

At this level, people start to internalize moral standards of the adult role models that they value. On most occasions, the authority is internalized but it is not questioned. Reasoning with regards to morality is mostly determined by the norms of the group that people belong to. This level is typical of both adults and adolescents. Morality is judged based on the society’s expectations and views. People just accept what the society has termed as either right or wrong. An individual is expected to obey the rules set forward regardless of whether there is going to be consequences or not. The level entails stage 3 and 4 of the moral development theory.

Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships

At this stage, people are good in order to be perceived as good individuals by others. Children strive to be “good kids” in order to live to the society’s expectations. They tend to understand that being regarded as good plays to the advantage of oneself. “Good kids” tend to get favours now and then. On most occasions they have their way on the things that they want. Children feel that the idea of not being naughty would help them be in favourable terms with people in the society. This usually helps even in times when such children have undertaken undesirable acts that people are not quite sure who did them. It is certain that the kids used to behaving in a certain way will get the benefit of doubt compared to their counterparts. A good example how children try to show morality is by giving food to street peasants. This is because they think that doing so makes them ‘nice’.

Stage 4: Maintaining Social order

Stage four goes beyond the need for people being approved like in stage 3. People tend to understand the need for obeying dictums, social conventions and laws due to the significance that they have towards enhancing a functioning society. Here, children/individuals become aware of the rules governing the society. There are central ideals that dictate what is wrong or right. It is everyone’s duty or obligation to ensure that these ideals have been upheld at all times regardless of the circumstances. People are considered to be morally wrong when they violate the law. In this stage, culpability is the main factor that separates the good and bad deeds. Most people in the society tend to remain at this stage, where morality is usually determined by outside forces. A good example is how policemen refuse bribes handed to them by individuals breaking the law in one way or another. They owe a duty of care and protection to the society so they must ensure that law and order is maintained at all time.

Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

This level is actualized by an inherent realization that people are separate entities from the society. This means that their perspectives have the ability to take precedence over the society’s views. Here, people have the ability to disobey rules that contravene their principles. It is usually a small percentage of people in the society that are able to operate at this level. Kohlberg asserts that around 10-15% enhance this form of abstract thinking. This is to mean that most people develop their morality based on external forces and their ethical principles. Post-conventional moralists tend to live by their own principles. This includes ethical principles such as the right of liberty, life, and justice. The level encompasses stage 5 and 6 of the moral development theory.

Stage 5: Individual Rights and Social Contract

Stage 5 asserts that people should consider values and opinions of others before deciding on the morality of other people’s actions. In the society, people hold different rights, values and opinions. These perspectives ought to be respected as they are unique to each community or individual. People understand that while rules are meant for the good of the public, there are occasions when they might go against the interests of some people. The laws that do not promulgate the welfare of the general public should be altered when necessary.   Some of the issues are not clear-cut. A good example is the act of saving someone’s life can be considered to be more important compared to the act of stealing; which is against the law.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

At this stage, people tend to develop their own moral guidelines. These guidelines may or may not fit within the context of the law. These are guidelines such as human rights and equality. People envisaged in this stage are usually prepared to defend what they believe in regardless of the perceived outcomes. They are not afraid to go against the entire society or to face the consequences of being disapproved or imprisoned while pursuing their principles. Kohlberg postulates that very few people have the ability of actualizing this stage.