PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING :: CREATIVITY.

Creativity Concept

All creative persons transform the ordinary things into something of great charm and beauty. Creativity is the capacity or ability of an individual to create, produce and discover a new idea or object including the rearrangement or reshaping of what is already known. As it involves a process, it is called as creative process. This creative process involves creative thinking i.e., divergent thinking. Creative thinking is always fresh and innovative. Creativity is personal, imaginative thinking which produces a new, novel and useful solution. Unlike ordinary solution to problems, creative solutions are the new one to the effect that other people have not thought before.

Creativity refers to the production of the individual which is new, original, unusual, ingenious and useful to the society. 

This is also a controlled thinking in which the creative thinker whether artist, writer or a scientist is trying to create something new. It involves characteristics of both reasoning and imagination. Creative thinking is a process in which the individual generates an original, unusual and productive solution to a problem.

The product of creative thinking may be a new and unique way of conceptualizing the world around us. The emphasis in creative thinking is on the word ‘new’. In human beings we find two kinds of productive abilities – the convergent and divergent abilities.

Convergent abilities are used to bring together otherwise divergent things. Divergent production abilities are those which are not guided by rules or conventions, but capable of generating new solutions to a problem. Divergent production abilities are particularly important in creative thinking.

The Components of Creativity:

Two of the primary components of creativity are originality and functionality.

Originality: The idea should be something new that is not simply an extension of something else that already exists.

Functionality: The idea needs to actually work or possess some degree of usefulness.

Creativity involves the creative process. The creative process needs creative thinking. Creative thinking is said to involve some specific and definite dimensions or steps or stages. Graham Wallas (1926) has emphasised that creative thinking involves four stages, namely:

Preparation:

Problem solving becomes so easy and familiar with the various features of the problem. In preparation we begin to define, analyse and thus the stage is set for its solution. The plan of action is formulated by means of collecting and analysing the information. In between, if it’s necessary, the plan of action is modified. If there is any failure then we can switch on to other method. At some point, we find that solving the problem is a great problem and we keep it away for the time being. Such a deliberate turning away the issues is the beginning of the second stage- Incubation.

In short, the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered necessary for finding new solutions. Many times the problem cannot be solved even after days, weeks or months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the problem, the thinker turns away from it initiating next stage.

Incubation:

In this stage, there is an absence of creative thinking about the problem. We take rest and keep the problem away by being busy with some interesting activities. The problem is allowed to soak in our unconscious mind where the process of finding out a solution for it starts. During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to fade. The overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But the unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period. Apparently the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing games, etc. In spite of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem will be going on in the mind.

Meanwhile the new direction may allow the individual in promoting the solution. This leads to the stage of illumination or insight.

Intimation:

 This is one of the sub stages and is considered important. Before moving on to the illumination or insight, the creative person gets a ‘feeling’ that a solution is on its way. 

Illumination or Insight:

In this stage a person comes across a sudden insight or a solution or idea and it proves to be the good solution to the problem. A creative person or thinker gets an insightful solution. Such a change can occur at any point of time in this stage of illumination. The third stage is what most of the public think is a classic signal or sign of a creative person, what is called the insight stage or the insight step. With insight it is really the idea of the ‘Aha’ moment, the ‘Eureka’ moment. Although it is probably the smallest part of the five steps, it is possible one of the most important parts.

This is because your sub consciousness in the previous stages is bubbling away and this insight stage really allows the mind to work on something else. And then bring these ideas to the forefront of your mind. So that’s the third stage, the insight’s or the illumination stage. This leads to the final stage of verification or revision. 

Verification:

This is the final step in the creative process or creative thinking. By this stage illumination is tried out and the solution is revised to or verified to know whether it is effective to solve the problem. Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that solution is correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the solution is not satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the beginning. In order to take these kinds of steps it needs to be analysed and administered.

If it is satisfactory, the same will be accepted and if necessary, minor modifications may also be made to the solution.

Thus, these are the steps of scientific and systematic way of analysing higher creative process.

Types of Creativity:

Experts also tend to distinguish between different types of creativity. The “four c” model of creativity suggests that there are four different types:

• “Mini-c” creativity involves personally meaningful ideas and insights that are known only to the self.

• “Little-c” creativity involves mostly everyday thinking and problem-solving. This type of creativity helps people solve everyday problems they face and adapt to changing environments.

• “Pro-C” creativity takes place among professionals who are skilled and creative in their respective fields. These individuals are creative in their vocation or profession but do not achieve eminence for their works.

• “Big-C” creativity involves creating works and ideas that are considered great in a particular field. This type of creativity leads to eminence and acclaim and often leads to world-changing creations such as medical innovations, technological advances, and artistic achievements.

What Does It Take to Be Creative?

The Hungarian-American psychologist Csikszentmihalyi, suggests that creative people tend to possess a variety of traits that contribute to their innovative thinking. Some of these key traits include:

1. Energy: Creative people tend to possess a great deal of both physical and mental energy. However, they also tend to spend a great deal of time quietly thinking and reflecting.

2. Intelligence: Intelligence is the quality of being very smart and well-informed. Creativity is the ability to cause or to exist. It is a subjective value. Both, intelligence and creativity are mental abilities. Psychologists have long believed that intelligence plays a critical role in creativity. In Terman’s famous longitudinal study of gifted children, researchers found that while high IQ was necessary for great creativity, not all people with high IQs are creative. Csikszentmihalyi believes that creative people must be smart, but they must be capable of looking at things in fresh, even naive ways.

3. Discipline: Creative people do not just sit around waiting for inspiration to strike. They are playful, yet they are also disciplined in the pursuit of their work and passions.

While some people seem to come by creativity naturally, there are things that can be done to increase own creativity. As Csikszentmihalyi has noted, creativity requires both a fresh perspective combined with discipline. 

As Thomas Edison famously suggested, genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration.

The late American Poet Maya Angelou also suggested that thinking creativity helps foster even greater creativity:

"Creativity or talent, like electricity, is something I don’t understand but something I’m able to harness and use. While electricity remains a mystery, I know I can plug into it and light up a cathedral or a synagogue or an operating room and use it to help save a life. Or I can use it to electrocute someone. Like electricity, creativity makes no judgment. I can use it productively or destructively. The important thing is to use it. You can’t use up creativity. The more you use it, the more you have."

PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING :: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

Dissimilarity is principle of nature. No two persons are alike. All the individuals differ from each other in many respects. Children born of the same parents and even the-twins are not alike. This differential psychology is linked with the study of individual differences. 

Individuals differ in mental abilities as well as in physique and traits of personality. Everywhere people are influenced by the number of genetic factors and environmental influences. 

This change is seen in physical forms like in height, weight, colour and complexion strength etc., difference in intelligence, achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude, learning habits, motor abilities and skill. Each man has an intellectual capacity through which he gains experience and learning.

Every person has the emotions of love, anger, fear and feelings of pleasure and pain. Every man has the need of independence, success and need for acceptance.

Broadly individual difference may be classified into two categories such as inherited traits and acquired traits: 

Based on the types of Individual Differences we shall describe the factors and reasons:

Intra-Individual Differences-

Body form and abilities: People differ and in the very use of all the sensory, motor and physical ability.

Cognitive Abilities: Perceptual abilities, conceptual abilities, knowing many things, remembering, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, evaluating, analyzing, imagining can be factors for differences.

Affective Qualities: Ability to attend, receive, feel and experience emotions may be different in different individuals.

Psychomotor Differences: The responses and behaviour of individual differ depending on their attitudes towards the person or situation, interest, aptitude and so on.

Inter-Individual Differences-

These include the differences that arise due to the heredity and environment. They are classified as:

Physical or Physiological Differences:-

Physical Differences: Differences due to height, weight, colour of skin, colour of eyes and hair, size of hands, arms, feet, head, mouth, nose, length of waist line, hair style, structure and functioning of internal organs etc.

Motor Differences: Differences due to factors such as speed of reaction, reaction time, steadiness, rate of muscular movement, manual dexterity, resistance to fatigue etc.

Psychological Differences:-

Mental Differences: People differ in intelligence i.e. in creative abilities, intellectual capabilities like thinking, reasoning, imagining, evaluating, analyzing, judging and problem solving etc. Based on these factors individuals are distinguished as borderline, idiots, morons, superiors etc.

Emotional Difference: Individuals differ due to factors like few have more inclination towards love, joy, affection, amusement and few are inclined more towards fear, anger, distress, despair and jealousy.

Differences due to various interests: Individuals differ due to their interests in meeting people, attending social events or functions, group activities and fond of picnics etc.

Differences in Aptitudes: Differences due to aptitudes among individuals. Few have scholastic aptitude, musical aptitude, artistic aptitude or scientific aptitude and so on.

Differences in attitude and beliefs: We have varying attitudes towards people, group, things and ideologies. Few have conservative and rigid belief. Few are open, rational and flexible in nature.

Learning Differences: We differ in our learning differences, learning modes, speed of learning, in the quality and quantity of learning, use of learning in the daily life situations.

Differences in Achievement: We differ due to the achievement. Education is one major factor which brings individual differences. There is a wide gap in the behaviours of educated and uneducated persons. All traits of human beings like social, emotional and intellectual are controlled and modifies through proper education. This education brings a change in our attitude, behaviour, appreciations, Personality. It is seen that uneducated persons are guided by their instinct and emotions where as the educated persons are guided by their reasoning power.

Difference in social and moral orientation: Some of us are in participative nature while others are socially handicapped, social or antisocial, anti people, poorly developed personalities, socially blind etc.

Sex Differences: Men have more motor skills requiring muscular strength and persistence than women. Men have more scientific, mechanical, theoretical interests. Women have good language abilities. They are more social and emotional.

Difference in physical maturity: All do not attain physical maturity at the same age either physically or physiologically. Here growth is related to the stages of functioning of the various parts/ organs/ senses of our body.

Differences in Health status: General health of children affects their behaviour including their learning and doing academic work. Under nourishment or malnutrition have effects on the child.

Differences in Chronological Age: It is observed that children learn faster and better than adults. Age is another factor which is responsible in bringing individual differences. Learning ability and adjustment capacity naturally grow with age. When one grows in age can acquire better control over our emotions and better social responsibilities. When a child grows then this maturity and development goes side by side.

Due to the above factors Individual Difference exists.

Educational implications of Individual differences are listed below:

1. Aims of education, curriculum and method of teaching should be linked with individual differences considering the different abilities and traits individual.
2. Curriculum should be designed as per the interest, abilities and needs of different students.
3. The teacher has to adopt different types of methods of teaching considering individual difference related to interest, need, etc.
4. Some co-curricular activities such as Drama, music, literary activities (Essay & Debate Competition) should be assigned to children according to their interest.
5. Teacher uses certain specific teaching aids which will attract the children towards teaching considering their interest and need.
6. Various methods such as playing method, project method, Montessori method, storytelling methods are to be used considering/discovering how different children respond to a task or a problem.
7. The division of pupils into classes should not be based only on the mental age or chronological age of children but the physical, social and emotional maturity should be given due consideration.
8. In case of vocational guidance the counsellor is to plan the guidance technique keeping in view the needs and requirements of the students.

PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING :: FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

In our previous blog we have learnt about 'Growth' and 'Development'. Before we concentrate on the factors affecting growth and development. Let's take a quick look at the difference between growth and development.

Growth is indicative i.e. increase in body, size, weight etc.   It is quantitative progress.  It is a physical change. It is external in nature. It stops at certain stage and is a physical progress.

Development is not indicative. It qualitative progress.  It is psychological change.   It is internal in nature.   It is continuous process and is a cognitive progress.

Human growth and development is affected by a large number of factors. These factors include internal factors and external factors. Internal factors are conditions within the body.

The integrated nature of growth, maturation and development are largely maintained by a constant interaction of genes, hormones, nutrients and other factors. These factors also influence physical performance. Some are hereditary in origin. Others, such as season, dietary restriction, severe psychological stress, originate in the environment and simply affect the rate of growth at the time they are acting. Others again, such as socio-economic class, reflect a complicated mixture of hereditary and environmental influences and probably act throughout the whole period of growth. 

Human organism is the product of heredity and environment. Potentialities of development, and not acquired skills, knowledge and attitudes are handed down from parents to their off-springs. Again, favourable environmental influences and specific training are required to develop a superior personality or to improve a weak one.

To better understand the concept the nature-nurture both influence the growth and development of an individual. The final end product that we obtain is the product generated after the influence of the internal and external factors. Let's learn in detail about these factors.

Internal Factors Include:

1.Hereditary factors

2.Biological or Constitutional factors

3.Intelligence 

4.Emotional factors

5.Social factors.

Internal factors are the factors which are within the individual. 

Hereditary factors:  Hereditary factors play their part at the time of conception in the mother’s womb. A person’s height, weight and structure of the body, colour of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instinct are all decided by these hereditary influences. Hereditary factors play a very important role in the growth and development. The foetus hereditary is influenced by the generational characters transmitted by the parents to the child. The nerves system, physical structures and physiological functions all are demonstrated by the hereditary thus passed, if it is dominating in an individual, environmental influence is minimum.

Biological and Constitutional factors: A child’s constitutional make-up, somatic structure, physique and body chemistry influences his growth and development throughout his life. The growth and development of an individual is influenced by the body structure, physique and body chemistry of an individual. I the body structure, physique i.e. the individual has any organ deformities or say undeveloped or underdeveloped nervous system, the individual cannot function normally. It effects the cognitive and physical functioning. The chemistry of the body is also affected if the body of an individual has a malfunctioning in the secretions of the endocrine glands. 

Endocrine glands are commonly referred to as ductless glands, or glands of internal secretion. They secrete chemical substances, hormones directly into the bloodstream. Human growth is affected by biochemical products such as hormones. Hormones are regarded as growth promoting substance. Probably all the endocrine glands influence growth. Most of the hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands and play a significant role in regulating the pattern of growth and development as per instructions of the genes.  

 The most important hormone controlling growth from birth up to adolescence is growth hormone or somatotrophin. This is in fact a polypeptide secreted by the pituitary. It helps growth of bones and thereby increases the height of persons. Growth hormone controls the rate at which growth takes place up to the time of steroid - induced adolescent spurt.

Its administration causes the amino acids to be incorporated into tissues to form new protein. It also causes an overall growth rate of most of tissues including brain.

 Thyroid hormone plays a vital role throughout the whole of growth. The activity of the thyroid, judged by the basal metabolic rate, decreases gradually from birth to adolescence. In hypothyroidism growth is delayed, skeletal maturity; dental maturity and growth of the brain are all affected. During adolescence a new phase of growth occurs under the control of steroid hormones secreted by the adrenals and gonads. The gonads of both sexes secrete estrogens in small quantities from the time of birth onwards. At puberty the estrogens level rise, sharply in girls and to a much more limited extent in boys; the sex differences is possibly due to an inhibitory hormone secreted by the seminiferous tubules of the testicle. Testosterone, produced by the testicle, is important in stimulating growth and it is responsible for the greater growth of muscle. Gonadotrophins are responsible for the growth of the ovaries and testis, and later on the secretion of the amounts of estrogens and testosterone responsible for the growth and development of secondary sex characters.  

Intelligence:  Intelligence contributes to the growth and development of the individual. Intelligence is the ability to learn about, learn from, understand, adjust, interact with the environment and take right decision at right time. It affects the social behaviour, moral judgment and emotional growth.  Low grade intelligence is associated with retardation, slow learning and poor performance. On the other hand, high grade intelligence is associated with acceleration which includes social amicability, emotional stability, moral judgement, fast decision making, adjustment with the environment, quick learning and excellent performance.

Emotional factors:  Emotional factors include fear, anxiety, anger, jealousy etc. They have adverse effect towards physical, social, mental, emotional and language development. Emotional maturity plays a very important role in the growth and development of the child.

Social factors: Social factors affect a lot towards an individual's adaptability. It helps an individual to adjust to the society and his environment.

The expression of feelings about self, others, and things describe emotional development. Emotional and social development are often described and grouped together because they are closely interrelated growth patterns. 

The sex of an individual also affects growth and development. At birth, boys are slightly bigger in size than girls. When the process of growth sets in after birth, girls exhibit rapid growth and attain full size earlier than boys. 

External factors: External factors influence growth and development; they are outside or from external source as the environment.  Much of the physical growth depends partly upon such environmental factors as sunlight, fresh air, conditions of climate and partly' upon food and nutrition.

When we talk about the environment, it can be the environmental influence on the foetus and environmental influence after the birth of an individual.

Environmental influence on the foetus happens when the foetus is still in the mother's womb. It includes the effect of radiation, pollution, malnutrition, heavy work by the mother and lack of proper care and affection from others.

Environmental influences after birth include lack of proper care after the birth of a baby. After birth proper care is required to avoid complications. Accidents and incidents make the growth and development to lapse. If any damage occurs in brain, it renders proper growth. Love, affection, good physical environment, proper nourishment, medical care can bring harmony in growth and development.

There is a well-marked seasonal effect on velocity of growth visible in most human growth data. Growth in height is on average fastest in spring and growth in weight fastest in autumn. This is true at all ages, including adolescence. The mechanism of the seasonal effect is not known; probably variations in hormone secretion are involved. Climate seems to have a very minor effect on overall rate of growth in man. It has been suggested that each major race of mankind varies in stature according to the climates in which they live.  Seasonal variation in growth has also been observed in many studies. Longitudinal studies have shown that only about 30% of the children have cycles of increase and decrease in growth velocity which are strictly seasonal. The remaining children show accelerations and decelerations of growth which cannot be clearly related with seasons. 

Growth is closely related with nutrition. A sufficiency of food is essential for normal growth. An adequate supply of calories is naturally essential for the normal growth of humans and the need varies with the phase of development.  Nine different amino acids have been claimed to be essential for growth and absence of any one will result in disordered or stunted growth. Other factors are also essential for growth. For example, zinc plays a part in protein synthesis and is a constituent of certain enzymes; a deficiency of zinc causes stunting, interference with sexual development and falling out of hair.  Iodine is needed for the manufacture of the thyroid hormones. Bone will not grow properly without an adequate supply of calcium, phosphorus and other inorganic constituents such as magnesium and manganese. Iron is required for the production of haemoglobin. Vitamins play an important part in growth. Vitamin A is thought to be control the activities of osteoblasts. In vitamin C deficiency the intercellular substance of bone is inadequately formed. Vitamin D deficiency is the cause of rickets. Malnutrition during childhood delays growth, and malnutrition in the years proceeding adolescence delays the appearance of the adolescent spurt. Growth studies have demonstrated that malnutrition may cause serious impairment of growth. The term malnutrition generally refers to the effects of an inadequate intake of calories or other major dietary components such as proteins.  

Malnutrition may also result from diseases which decrease the appetite or interfere with digestion and assimilation. 

The physical growth of human beings is definitely affected by cultural factors. Culture differs from ethnic group to ethnic group. The body growth differences correlate with varied cultural groups.  The physical growth of the body follows some adaptations in different geographical areas of distribution of the groups. 

Socioeconomic influence on human growth is also a well known factor. Children from different socioeconomic levels differ in average body size at all ages that have been investigated. The upper groups being always more advanced along the course to maturity.   The cause of this socio - economic differential are probably multiple. Nutrition is almost certainly one, and with it all the habits of regular meals, sleep, exercise and general organization that distinguish, from the point of view, a good home from a bad one. Growth differences are more closely related to the home conditions than to the strictly economic status of the families and home conditions reflect the intelligence and personality of the parents. Size of family exerts an indirect influence on the rate of growth. In a large family with limited income the children do not get proper nutrition. As a result the growth is affected. The number of children in the family exerts an effect on the children’s rate of growth. Children in large families have been shown to be usually smaller and lighter than children in small families. Possibly this is because in large families children tend to get less individual care and attention.